The following is a list of feed ingredients and commodities that are commonly used in dairy cattle rations. The analyses provided should be used primarily as a point of reference, not for balancing rations. Feed ingredients, especially by-products, vary tremendously in their nutrient analysis. It is strongly recommended that feed analysis be conducted in a laboratory and those results used for the purpose of ration balancing. It is also strongly recommended that supplier consistency be evaluated once an ingredient is being fed on an ongoing basis.
Alfalfa Pellets (Dehydrated Alfalfa) - Artificially dried alfalfa is ground and pelleted. It is fed as a source of protein, energy, and fiber. Although it can replace a portion of the long forage in a ration, caution should be used because its fiber is not “effective”; it is not long enough to stimulate cud-chewing and saliva production. Alfalfa pellets are sold based on their protein content which can range from 15-22% (As-Fed Basis).
Grade 20 Alfalfa Pellets:
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 22 |
20 |
35 |
31 |
42 |
21 |
0.64 |
3.7 |
1.74 |
0.30 |
0.36 |
2.73 |
0.29 |
Almond Hulls – Almond hulls are the outside coats of almonds which cover the almond shell with the seed inside. Almond hulls are a popular feed in areas, such as the western U.S., where almonds are grown. Depending on processing conditions, there is likely to be some almond shells mixed in with the almond hulls. This contamination increases the fiber content and of course, decreases the energy content. Almond hulls are not very palatable.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 10% of the ration (DM Basis)
Almond Hulls With No Shells:
| CP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 2.7 |
20 |
25 |
61.1 |
0.60 |
3.6 |
0.23 |
0.11 |
0.13 |
0.53 |
0.11 |
Apple Pomace – This is a by-product from when apples are pressed to make cider, vinegar, or wine. It can be fed wet (either fresh or ensiled) and will handle like wet brewer’s grains. Apple pomace is also fed dry and mixed with oat or rice hulls or other byproducts, but this usually lowers its feeding value. Apple pomace contains about 19% pectin (DM Basis). Pectin is chemically bound together in a different way than the most of the fiber in forages. Because of this, pectin is easily digested by the fiber-digesting bacteria in the rumen.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 15% of the ration (DM Basis)
Apple Pomace With Oat Hulls:
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 5.1 |
22 |
20 |
32 |
42 |
44.2 |
.70 |
5.2 |
0.13 |
0.12 |
0.07 |
0.49 |
0.02 |
Apple Pomace With No Hulls Added:
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 4.9 |
22 |
20 |
26 |
39 |
48.8 |
.71 |
5.1 |
0.13 |
0.11 |
0.07 |
0.46 |
0.02 |
Bakery Waste (Cookie Meal) – This includes stale bread, pastries, and donuts. It is sometimes fed straight from the bakery, even with the wrapper. It is also sometimes processed on the farm to break it up and make it easier to feed. It is also sold as a ground product in the feed industry. One problem with bakery waste, especially for the feed industry, is the inconsistent nutrient profile and quality of product, depending on the supplier. The processed sugars and starches in bakery waste rapidly ferment in the cow’s rumen, potentially causing rumen acidosis and milkfat depression if used in excess. But, if used appropriately, bakery waste can increase the growth of the rumen microbes, increase milk production, and decrease the amount of cornmeal passing out in the cow’s manure. The correct amount of bakery waste to include in the ration is dependent on the amounts of other rapidly fermentable sugars and starches in the ration. Depending on sources, bakery waste can contain a significant amount of rumen available fat. Total rumen available fat should be limited to 5% of the ration dry matter.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 10% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 10.7 |
28 |
40 |
13 |
18 |
54.2 |
0.94 |
12.7 |
.14 |
.26 |
.26 |
.53 |
.02 |
Note: The nutrient profile of bakery waste is extremely dependent on source
Barley Grain (Ground Barley) – In some regions, especially in cooler climates, barley is a common grain fed primarily as a source of energy and starch. Depending on the starch source and processing, the glucose units making up a particular starch may be very tightly bonded and compacted together or they may be weakly linked together. The starch in barley is less tightly bonded and ferments faster than that in corn therefore it should be ground more coarsely than corn to avoid rumen acidosis. Milk responses may sometimes be seen when a combination of ground barley and cornmeal is fed to provide the rumen microbes with a blend of fast and slow degradable starches. Based on source and growing conditions, the nutrient profile of barley can vary.
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 13.5 |
35 |
27 |
7 |
19 |
62.8 |
0.88 |
0.38 |
0.15 |
0.47 |
2.1 |
0.05 |
0.17 |
Beans – Cull green and dry beans from the vegetable industry. Some farmers have successfully fermented beans in combination with corn stover.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 10% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 25.3 |
0.88 |
1.5 |
0.18 |
.59 |
.15 |
1.47 |
.26 |
Beet Pulp – Beet pulp is the residue left after sugar is extracted from sugar beets. It is fed either as shredded, loose material or pelleted. Beet pulp contains a large amount of pectin (25% (DM Basis)). Pectin is chemically bound together in a different way than the most of the fiber in forages. Because of this, pectin is easily digested by the fiber-digesting bacteria in the rumen. We can reduce the level of starch in the diet and reduce rumen acidity by including pectin in the diet. Since pectin is very digestible, it provides the rumen and the cow with a large amount of energy. When labs analyze beet pulp for neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and they calculate non-fiber carbohydrate (NFC), they actually include pectin as part of the NFC fraction. This is confusing. The lab calls pectin a non-fiber carbohydrate but the rumen bacteria digest pectin like a fiber. In the future, labs may directly test feeds for their pectin content and eliminate this confusion.
Like soy hulls and citrus pulp, beet pulp provides very little effective fiber. Effective fiber is long fiber that will form a mat in the rumen and will stimulate cud-chewing. Cows must have a minimum amount of effective NDF. Without it, they will have rumen acidosis. Before feeding beet pulp, evaluate the effectiveness of the fiber in ration forages.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 12% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 10.8 |
26.4 |
30 |
27.8 |
50.1 |
33.2 |
0.81 |
1 |
0.77 |
0.09 |
0.27 |
0.81 |
0.22 |
Blood Meal – Blood meal is ground, dried blood. It is a by-product of the rendering industry. It is fed as a source of protein, especially rumen undegradable (bypass) protein. Blood meal contains a blend of amino acids similar to that needed for milk production, making it a high-quality bypass protein source. It is contains quite a bit of the amino acid, lysine. However, it is somewhat limiting in the amino acid, methionine. Typically, blood meal is purchased and fed blended with other animal proteins.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 4% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 87.2 |
10 |
70 |
0 |
0 |
5.6 |
0.68 |
1.4 |
0.10 |
0.24 |
0.32 |
0.26 |
0.37 |
Brewers Grains – Brewers grains are a residue of barley malt left after making beer. They may also contain some other grain products and spent hops. Brewers grains can be in a wet (malt) form (20% DM) or a dry form (90% DM). Brewers grains are high in fiber. They are often used as a forage extender in dairy cow rations. When using brewers grains in rations to replace forage, one must recognize that they are not a good source of “effective fiber” (meaning that brewers grains do not stimulate cud-chewing) and their fiber is more rapidly degraded than that contained in most forages. The protein in brewers grains is not very soluble and it is slowly fermentable. So, they have a fair amount of undegradable protein (UIP). However, brewers grains have low quality protein, primarily because they are low in the amino acid, lysine. Brewers grains are usually stored in a concrete pit. In the summer, they can be stored up to a week before they significantly spoil.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 15% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 28.7 |
10.5 |
50 |
24 |
46 |
17.3 |
0.68 |
6.5 |
.33 |
.55 |
.16 |
0.09 |
.32 |
Canola Meal (Improved Rapeseed Meal) – Canola is an oilseed similar to soybean and linseed. Canola meal remains after canola seeds are crushed and a solvent used to extract the oil. Canola meal contains less of the unpalatable erucic acid and glucosinolates that are in rapeseed meal. Even though the palatability of canola meal has been greatly improved, it is still thought to be slightly less palatable than soybean meal. Canola meal is primarily used as a source of protein. The protein in canola meal is similar in amino acid profile to soybean meal (leucine, isoleucine, or methionine may be first-limiting) but it is more soluble and more degradable. The amount of canola meal to use in a ration is usually based on cost and the ability of canola meal to meet the protein fraction requirements of the cow.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 15% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 44 |
28 |
28 |
18 |
36 |
11 |
0.78 |
1.2 |
0.73 |
1.13 |
.058 |
1.29 |
|
Chocolate – Waste chocolate can be fed to dairy cows, primarily as a source of sugar and fat. There is also some evidence that it improves feed palatability. The sugars in chocolate are rapidly fermented in the rumen, often positively increasing microbial protein production but causing acidosis (not good!) if overfed. One must also be careful not to exceed 5% rumen available fat in the ration. The analysis of chocolate will vary depending on the amount of other candy products (such as cookies and peanuts) and wrapper is with the chocolate. Especially in the feed industry, a consistent supplier is helpful.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 4% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
ADF |
NDF |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
| %DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 24.4 |
6.8 |
10.9 |
100.5 |
24.4 |
0.09 |
0.21 |
Citrus Pulp -- Citrus pulp consists of the white, fibrous inside, the peel, and the seeds of oranges and other citrus fruits. It’s the leftovers from making orange or grapefruit juice. Processors dry the citrus pulp down in rotating drums and usually press it together into pellets having 90% dry matter.
Citrus pulp contains a large amount of a type of fiber called pectin. It makes up 35% of the dry matter. Pectin is chemically bound together in a different way than the most of the fiber in forages. Because of this, pectin is easily digested by the fiber-digesting bacteria in the rumen. We can reduce the level of starch in the diet and reduce rumen acidity by including pectin in the diet. Since pectin is very digestible, it provides the rumen and the cow with a large amount of energy. On a dry matter basis, citrus pulp contains about 0.80 Mcal Net Energy for Lactation (NEl )/ lb while grass hay only has about 0.60 Mcal NEl / lb. Cornmeal contains 0.89 Mcal NEl / lb. When labs analyze citrus pulp for neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and they calculate non-fiber carbohydrate (NFC), they actually include pectin as part of the NFC fraction. This is confusing. The lab calls pectin a non-fiber carbohydrate but the rumen bacteria digest pectin like a fiber. In the future, labs may directly test feeds for their pectin content and eliminate this confusion.
Even though citrus pulp often seems a little strange to cows at first, once they try it, they like it and usually total dry matter intake will increase. Citrus pulp pellets contain about 20% sugars. This enhances palatability and can also stimulate the rumen bacteria. Like soy hulls and beet pulp, citrus pulp provides very little effective fiber. Effective fiber is long fiber that will form a mat in the rumen and will stimulate cud-chewing. Cows must have a minimum amount of effective NDF. Without it, they will have rumen acidosis. Before feeding citrus pulp, evaluate the effectiveness of the fiber in ration forages and of course, try to make any changes in the feed program slowly (over 3-4 days).
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 10% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 6.7 |
40 |
20 |
22 |
23 |
60.5 |
0.80 |
3.7 |
1.8 |
0.12 |
0.17 |
0.79 |
0.08 |
Corn Grain (Cornmeal, Ground Corn) – Corn is one of the most common sources of energy and starch for the dairy cow. It contains about 10% crude protein, which is known to be limiting in the amino acid, lysine. The starch in cornmeal at 90% DM is very crystalline and tightly bound together. Corn starch is digested more slowly than the starch in oats, barley, and wheat (in that order). However, the starch is sorghum is less digestible than corn starch.
The energy value of corn is highly dependent on its degree of processing. Grinding increases the amount of surface area that the rumen microbes can attach to. Thus, grinding increases starch digestibility in the rumen and in the intestine. Cracked corn (0.84 Mcal/lb NEl) has a lower energy value than cornmeal (0.89 Mcal/lb NEl). Cornmeal can also range from coarsely ground to finely ground. Finely ground cornmeal will be digested to a greater extent. However, grinding too fine may cause more acidosis, depending on the make-up of the entire ration. Generally, it is recommended that when sifted, 25% of cornmeal be retained on a 1/8”(0.32 cm) screen. But, if other more slowly digestible starch sources are in the ration, it might be advantageous to process corn even finer. If the corn is seen in the cow’s manure, it may need to be ground finer. Other reasons for seeing corn in the manure include: too little soluble protein or degradable protein in the ration, too little sugar in the ration, ration sorting, and an inadequate amount of effective NDF in the ration. Coarsely ground cornmeal will stay in the rumen longer and be more completely digested if there is a good fiber mat in the rumen.
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 10 |
12 |
50 |
3 |
9 |
75.1 |
0.89 |
4.3 |
0.14 |
0.03 |
0.29 |
0.37 |
0.12
|
High-Moisture Corn (High-Moisture Shelled Corn, High-Moisture Ear Corn) -
High-moisture corn may be harvested as shelled corn, ear corn, or snapped ear corn. The fiber in the ear is fairly digestible. Snapped ear corn includes the corn husks and is therefore, lower in energy and sometimes does not ferment well in the silo. Ensiling high-moisture corn (28-32% moisture) increases starch digestion by breaking down the protein structure of the grain and disrupting the crystalline structure of the starch. This allows the microbes to more easily burrow into and digest the starch.
Generally, it is recommended that NFC levels not exceed 40% of the total ration DM. This is due to the development of acidotic rumen conditions commonly at higher levels of NFC. However, this recommendation does not consider how fast the starches ferment. At the same level of ration NFC, high-moisture corn will often result in more rumen acidosis than cornmeal will. This is not only because it can have a higher overall digestibility but also because a greater proportion of high-moisture corn is digested within the first two hours after consumption. With rapidly available starches, the maximum NFC level may actually be less than 40%.
Because of the non-crystalline nature of the starch in high-moisture corn, it is usually recommended that it be rolled rather than ground. Grinding would make high-moisture corn degrade too rapidly and cause acidosis. However, sometimes we must deal with high-moisture corn that isn’t 28-32% moisture, it’s drier. In that case, it must be ground finer. Miner Institute in Chazy, New York reported an increase in milk of 5 lb./cow/day (2.25 kg) when corn at 23% moisture was ground with a hammer mill with a ½“ (1.27 cm) screen.
Recommended Particle Size of High-Moisture Corn (Sniffen et al., 1996)
|
% Retained on a 1/8” screen |
| High-Moisture Corn, 21% Moisture |
30 |
| High-Moisture Corn, 25% Moisture |
40 |
| High-Moisture Corn, 30% Moisture |
50 |
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 10 |
40 |
40 |
3 |
9 |
75.1 |
0.93 |
4.3 |
0.02 |
0.32 |
0.14 |
0.35 |
0.14 |
Corn Gluten Feed – When corn is milled to make corn starch and corn syrup, it is first soaked (or steeped) in water and sulfur dioxide. After the steep liquor is taken away and the corn germ is removed for oil extraction, the leftover kernel containing starch and hull (bran) is left. The starch is then removed and the hull is processed and usually dried to make corn gluten feed. Corn gluten feed is primarily used as an inexpensive source of protein and fiber. The protein in corn gluten feed is fairly soluble and degradable. Like all corn protein, it is limiting in the amino acid, lysine. The fiber in corn gluten feed is fairly digestible. It is not a great source of effective fiber so it is difficult to use it as a primary forage extender. It may, however, improve rumen conditions and milkfat test if it is used to reduce dietary NFC to a more acceptable level.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 15% of the ration (DM Basis)
Corn Gluten Meal – Corn gluten meal is a by-product from the making of corn starch and corn syrup. It is left after the starch, germ, and bran (hull) are removed. Corn gluten meal is used as a protein source for dairy cows. It is a particularly good source of rumen undegradable (bypass) protein. The only drawback is that, like all corn protein, it is low in the amino acid, lysine.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 12% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 23 |
33 |
35 |
34 |
44 |
8.2 |
1.01 |
20 |
0.21 |
0.64 |
0.46 |
1.00 |
0.26 |
Cottonseed Hulls - Cottonseed hulls remain after cottonseed is processed for oil and for cottonseed meal. Cottonseed hulls are primarily fed as a source of energy and fermentable fiber in dairy rations. They are commonly fed in areas of cotton production such as southern United States. The NDF digestibility of cottonseed hulls is rather low at about 33%. This, of course, lowers its energy. Since the NDF remains in the rumen for a long time, cottonseed hulls have slightly more value than more fermentable products such as citrus pulp and soy hulls, in providing rumen bulk in low fiber rations.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 15% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 9.6 |
22 |
35 |
61 |
75.6 |
5.5 |
0.45 |
6 |
0.28 |
0.17 |
0.21 |
1.26 |
0.12 |
Cottonseed Meal – Cottonseed meal is produced when oil is extracted from whole cottonseeds. Like with soybeans, cottonseed meal may be produced either by a mechanical (expeller) process or by a solvent extraction process. The solvent extraction is more common and produces a higher protein, lower fat product. Cottonseed meal is used primarily as a source of protein, especially rumen degradable protein, for cows. Cottonseed contains gossypol, a toxic pigment. Under normal feeding levels, gossypol toxicity is not a problem in the dairy cow.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 15% of the ration (DM Basis)
Cottonseed Meal, Solvent Extracted
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 48.9 |
22 |
43 |
21 |
28 |
14.7 |
0.78 |
1.7 |
0.17 |
1.00 |
0.55 |
1.39 |
0.34 |
Cottonseed Meal, Mechanically Extracted
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 48.9 |
22 |
43 |
21 |
28 |
14.7 |
0.78 |
1.7 |
0.17 |
1.00 |
0.55 |
1.39 |
0.34 |
Distillers Grains, Dried, With Solubles – Yeast is used to ferment grain for producing ethyl alcohol and the byproduct is distillers grains, dried, with solubles. It is primarily made from corn but may include other grains. It is very palatable. It is a good source of fat and UIP, but the UIP is not high in quality primarily because it is limiting in the amino acid, lysine.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 20% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 25 |
15 |
47 |
18 |
44 |
15.9 |
0.93 |
10.3 |
0.15 |
0.71 |
0.18 |
0.44 |
0.33 |
Fat – Fat is generally added to the diets of high-producing dairy cows because it is a concentrated form of energy. One pound of fat contains 2.25 times the energy as one pound of carbohydrate. Fats are not used as an energy source by the rumen microbes. They are absorbed from the intestine and used by the cow. Nutritionists often recommend fats if the maximum level of forage and grain (NFC) has been reached in the ration and more energy is needed for milk production and maintenance of body condition (body fat).
Fats are classified as either saturated (containing no double bonds in their chemical structure) or unsaturated (containing at least one double bond). Saturated fats are less detrimental to the rumen microbes. Unsaturated fats are hydrogenated and turned into saturated fats by the rumen microbes. The fiber microbes are especially susceptible to inhibition by unsaturated fats. We are able to get away with high levels of unsaturated fats in feed ingredients like roasted soybeans and whole cottonseed because the seed structure makes the fat slowly available in the rumen. Liquid fats are quickly available to the microbes and need to be in a saturated form to be least detrimental to the microbes.
Grades of Liquid Fat:
1. Animal Fat – Includes rendered fat from beef and pork by-products. It can be called Tallow if the titer is 40 or higher. It is called Grease if the titer is under 40. Lower titer indicates higher unsaturated fat levels. Pork fat is more unsaturated than beef fat.
2. Poultry Fat – Includes fats from 100% poultry offal. Poultry fat is fairly unsaturated.
3. Blended Feed Grade Animal Fat – Includes blends of tallow, grease, poultry fat, and restaurant grease.
4. Blended Animal and Vegetable Fats – Includes blends of feed grade animal, poultry, vegetable fats and/or restaurant grease.
5. Feed Grade Vegetable Fat – Includes vegetable oil, acidulated vegetable soapstocks and other refinery by-products.
Of the five fat sources above, tallow is the only one recommended for dairy cows. It should be stabilized with an antioxidant to prevent rancidity. Oxidative rancidity produces an unstable product that is unpalatable. Rancidity can also destroy Vitamins A, D, and E. Tallow should also be low in moisture and have few impurities. Refined beef tallow should be almost pure white in color.
Tallow:
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
2.65 |
99.5 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Rumen available fats, including feed fats from distillers’ grains, whole cottonseed, roasted soybeans, tallow and other feed ingredients can make up 5% of the diet dry matter. Above 5%, it is recommended that rumen inert fat sources be used up to a maximum level of 7% total fat in the diet dry matter.
Rumen Inert Fats (Bypass Fats):
1. Calcium Salts of Long-Chain Fatty Acids – Because these fats are in the form of a salt, they are not broken down in the rumen. They are digested once they arrive in the acid conditions of the cow’s abomasum. These products contain about 84% fat. Examples of these fats include: Megalac (from Church & Dwight) and Energi II (from Bioproducts)
2. Hydrogenated Fatty Acid Products – These products contain 99% fat made up of 100% free fatty acids that are saturated. Because of the high level of saturation, they bypass the cow’s rumen. Examples of these fats include: Energy Booster 100 (Milk Specialties Company) and Biopass (Bioproducts).
3. Hydrogenated Tallow Products – These products contain 95-99% fat made up of hydrogenated triglycerides. Because the fat is in the form of triglycerides rather than in free fatty acid form, they are thought to be a little less available to the cow. Examples of these fats include:Carolac, Alifet, and Dairy 80.
Calcium Salts of Long-Chain Fatty Acids:
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
2.99 |
83.3 |
8.6 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Hydrogenated Fatty Acid Products:
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
3.13 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Feather Meal (Hydrolyzed Poultry Feathers) – Feather meal is made by taking clean feathers from slaughtered poultry and subjecting them to steam and pressure. This breaks down the keratin and increases the digestibility of the protein in the feathers. Feather meal is a good source of rumen undegradable (bypass) protein. It is a high-quality protein and is often mixed with other animal proteins to achieve a blend of amino acids similar to that needed for milk production.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 3% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 92.4 |
10 |
70 |
0 |
0 |
1.7 |
0.70 |
3.8 |
0.22 |
0.80 |
0.22 |
0.30 |
1.70 |
Fish Meal – Fish meal is primarily a by-product of the fish oil industry. Fish are ground, cooked, and processed to remove their oil and the leftover product is fish meal. Menhaden fish meal is the most common in the U.S. Menhaden are not used for human food but just for their oil. Fish meal should be preserved with an antioxidant to prevent the development of rancidity. Fish meal is one of the highest quality sources of rumen undegradable (bypass) protein fed to dairy cows. Like other animal proteins, it is often purchased and fed in a blended form.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 3% of the ration (DM Basis)
Menhaden Fish Meal:
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 66.7 |
12 |
70 |
0 |
0 |
2 |
0.76 |
10.5 |
5.65 |
3.16 |
0.16 |
0.76 |
0.49 |
Hominy Feed – Hominy feed is produced when corn is processed to make pearl hominy, hominy grits, or table meal. Hominy feed contains corn bran, corn germ, and corn starch. It looks like ground corn but contains more protein, fiber, and fat than corn. Hominy feed is fed primarily as an energy source for dairy cows. It is very palatable. It contains about 30% of the starch (NFC) that corn has. The actual analysis can vary depending on processing conditions.
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 11.5 |
20 |
50 |
13 |
55 |
22.7 |
0.91 |
7.7 |
0.05 |
0.57 |
0.26 |
0.65 |
0.03 |
Linseed Meal (Flaxseed Meal) – Linseed meal remains after the oil is extracted (mechanically or by solvent) from flaxseed. It is very palatable and is fed as a source of protein, primarily degradable protein.
Linseed Meal (solvent-extracted):
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 38.3 |
41 |
35 |
19 |
25 |
28.7 |
0.81 |
1.5 |
0.43 |
0.89 |
0.66 |
1.53 |
0.43 |
Linseed Meal (mechanically-extracted):
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 37.9 |
41 |
35 |
17 |
25 |
24.8 |
0.86 |
6.0 |
0.45 |
0 .96 |
0.64 |
1.34 |
0.41 |
Lupin Seeds (Sweet Lupin Seeds/Beans) – Lupin is an annual, cool season crop grown in many northern climates. Old varieties contained more alkaloid that was both toxic and unpalatable. New varieties (sweet lupin) have lower alkaloid levels that can be tolerated by cows. Lupin is fed primarily as a source of rumen degradable protein. It should be rolled or ground but does not need to be heat processed.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 8% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 35.5 |
48 |
25 |
18 |
24 |
24.4 |
0.90 |
11 |
0.30 |
0.63 |
0.20 |
0.77 |
0.20 |
Meat and Bone Meal – Meat and bone meal is processed, dried animal tissue. There should be no horn, hair, hide, manure, stomach contents, or added blood or poultry meal in it. In the U.S., it is illegal to feed meat and bone meal from ruminants (cows, sheep, goats, etc.) to cows because of concerns regarding Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). It is legal to feed pork meat and bone meal. Meat and bone meal is fed primarily as a source of rumen undegradable (bypass) protein. The protein quality of meat and bone meal is not as high as that of other animal proteins and it is usually purchased and fed in combination with other animal proteins. Palatability is a problem with meat and bone meal. It should be gradually introduced to rations.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 3% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 54.1 |
15 |
55 |
0 |
0 |
4 |
0.74 |
10.4 |
11.06 |
5.48 |
1.09 |
1.43 |
0.27 |
Molasses, Cane – Cane molasses is a byproduct formed when sugar is made from sugar cane. Historically, it has been used to improve palatability and reduce dustiness of feeds, especially in pelleted feed. Recent work has shown that sugars can stimulate the rumen bacteria and increase the production of microbial protein. For this reason, molasses is sometimes added to rations to provide 1-2 pounds of sugars, especially when there is little sugar supplied by the other ration ingredients. Since molasses rapidly ferments in the rumen, it will increase the incidence of rumen acidosis if it is fed at too high of a level, in combination with too much rapidly degradable starch, or in rations with limited amounts of effective fiber.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 8% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 5.8 |
100 |
10 |
0 |
0 |
81 |
0.75 |
0.1 |
1.00 |
0.11 |
0.43 |
3.84 |
0.47 |
Oat Grain– Oats are fed primarily as a starch and energy source but they contain more fiber than barley or corn. Oats need to be rolled or ground for maximum digestibility. The starch in oats is digested at a rate midway be that of barley and corn. Normally, barley or corn is used in preference to oats in dairy cow rations because they have a higher energy density. Calf starters usually contain crimped oats. They add texture and provide a small amount of fiber while still providing starch to stimulate the development of the rumen papillae.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 15% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 13.3 |
31 |
20 |
16 |
32 |
45.9 |
0.80 |
5.4 |
0.07 |
0.38 |
0.14 |
0.44 |
0.23 |
Oat Hulls – Oat hulls are fed primarily as a source of fiber. They have little protein or energy value. They are used to replace and extend forages when they are in short supply. Caution should be used when using oat hulls to replace forages because oat hulls contain very little “effective” fiber for the cow to re-chew and produce saliva from.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 10% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 3.9 |
42 |
78 |
9.7 |
0.34 |
1.8 |
0.15 |
0.15 |
0.09 |
0.62 |
0.15 |
Peanut Meal – Peanut meal is left after oil is extracted (either mechanically or with a solvent) from peanuts. It is palatable and is used primarily as a source of protein, particularly rumen degradable protein.
Peanut Meal (solvent-extracted):
| CP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 52.3 |
25 |
6 |
14 |
26 |
0.80 |
1.4 |
0.29 |
0.68 |
0.17 |
1.23 |
0.33 |
Peanut Meal (mechanically-extracted):
| CP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 52 |
25 |
6 |
14 |
22.2 |
0.87 |
6.3 |
0.20 |
0.61 |
0.31 |
1.25 |
0.29 |
Rye Grain – Rye grain is fed as an energy source to cows. It is somewhat similar to barley. It should be rolled or ground. The palatability of rye is not great, limiting the amount acceptable in rations. Rye that is contaminated with the fungus, ergot, should not be used for feed.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 10% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 13.8 |
10 |
30 |
4 |
10 |
72.6 |
0.88 |
1.7 |
0.07 |
0.37 |
0.14 |
0.52 |
0.17 |
Sorghum Grain (Milo) – Sorghum is generally grown in areas where it is too dry for corn to grow, such as in the southern midwest in the U.S. Its nutrient profile can vary depending on variety and growing conditions. The starch in sorghum is very crystalline and very tightly bound together. Sorghum starch is digested more slowly than the starch in corn, oats, barley, and wheat (in that order). For this reason, it is recommended that sorghum be fed only in the finely ground form. Oklahoma State University research showed that sorghum should be ground through a 3/32” (0.24 cm) screen for best feed value.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate for Ground Sorghum = 25% of the ration (DM Basis). University of Arizona research has shown positive results from steam-flaking sorghum. Typical Maximum Feeding Rate for Thin Flaked Sorghum = 18% of the ration (DM Basis).
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 9.7 |
10 |
50 |
9 |
18 |
66.8 |
0.84 |
3.4 |
0.04 |
0.34 |
0.18 |
0.40 |
0.09 |
Soybean Meal – After extracting almost all of the oil (fat) out of the soybean using a solvent, soybean meal is left. Soybean meal is one of the most popular sources of protein, mostly rumen degradable protein, used in the U.S. Soybean meal-48 has most of the soy hull removed. Soybean meal-44 contains more hulls. Soybean meal-44 is more common in soy-growing areas such as the mid-western U.S. Outside of those areas, Soybean meal-48 is more common.
| |
CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
SOY
44 |
%DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Soy
48 |
9.7 |
10 |
50 |
9 |
18 |
66.8 |
0.84 |
3.4 |
0.04 |
0.34 |
0.18 |
0.40 |
0.09 |
Heat-Treated Full-Fat Soybeans – Dairy farmers feed heat-treated full-fat soybeans primarily as a source of fat (for energy) and as a source of protein, especially bypass protein. They are also very palatable. Raw (untreated) beans contain very little bypass protein and are therefore much less valuable as a feed source. Heat treatment destroys the trypsin inhibitor present in raw soybeans. Trypsin inhibitor can reduce protein digestion in the small intestine. Trypsin inhibitor is not a problem in the rumen but becomes a problem at the intestine if high levels of raw beans are fed. Proper heat treatment can raise the bypass protein from 20-25% of the CP in raw beans to 45-55% of the CP in heat-treated beans. The amount of temperature and duration of heating are critical for processing and has led to many quality-control problems. Too little heat and duration results in little improvement in the bypass protein. Too much heat and too long duration results in too much heat damaged protein (ADIN or bound protein) which will be indigestible and end up in the manure. Post-processing analysis for ADIN and bypass protein is extremely important. Roastingis the most common method of heat treatment for whole soybeans. According to Satter et al. (1994), soybeans need to be heated to 295oF (146oC) and held at that temperature (steeped) for 30 minutes. This ensures that the heat will penetrate inside the entire bean. In drum roasters (such as Roast-A-Matic or Gem) beans are dropped into a rotating drum with an air temperature of 400-600oF (204-316oC) and spend about a minute there before moving on to be steeped. High temperature air dryers (such as Jet-Pro or Thermo-Pro) move beans across a perforated floor. Hot air is blown through the floor. The amount of heat-treated full-fat soybeans is typically limited by its amount of rumen available fat. Total rumen available fat should be limited to 5% of the ration dry matter otherwise the rumen microbes (especially the fiber-digesters) will suffer. Fiber digestion, milk fat production, and milk production will all be compromised. In most dairy cow diets, about 2-3% rumen available fat comes from base feed ingredients and forages, leaving another 2-3% fat (1-1.5 pounds or 0.45-0.68 kg) which can come from heat-treated full-fat soybeans or other rumen available fat supplements.
Typical Maximum Feeding Rate = 12% of the ration (DM Basis)
| CP |
SIP |
UIP |
ADF |
NDF |
NFC |
NEl |
Fat |
Ca |
P |
Mg |
K |
S |
| %DM |
%CP |
%CP |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
Mcal/
lb |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
%DM |
| 42.2 |
15 |
45-
55 |
10 |
15 |
17.7 |
0.99 |
20 |
0.28 |
0.66 |
0.23 |
1.89 |
0.24 | Extruded soybeans are subjected to friction heat (270-300oF) (132-149oC) using a screw-auger. Much of the oil (fat) is removed. They are fed primarily for their bypass protein and fat, but the level of fat is usually lower than that found in heat-treated full-fat soybeans. Because of the cost of this process, it is not commonly used in the U.S.
|